Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is Pakistan's northwestern province, a mountainous region bordering Afghanistan that holds Peshawar, one of South Asia's oldest living cities, the Gandhara Buddhist ruins of Takht-i-Bahi, and the Himalayan, Karakoram and Hindu Kush valleys of Swat, Kaghan, Chitral and Dir. Travel conditions vary sharply by district, and official advisories advise against all or most travel to much of the province.
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa sits at the crossroads of South and Central Asia, and its history is a layering of empires along the Khyber Pass, the Swat valley and the Kabul River. The region was the heartland of Gandhara, where Greek, Persian and Indian traditions fused into the Buddhist art preserved at Takht-i-Bahi, Butkara and the Peshawar Museum. Alexander the Great marched through Swat in 327-326 BCE, the Mauryan emperor Ashoka carved edicts at Shahbaz Garhi, and Peshawar (Purushapura) was the Kushan capital under Kanishka. Islam arrived with Ghaznavid and Ghorid armies, Mughal governors such as Mahabat Khan left mosques and gardens, and the Durrani, Sikh and British periods built the forts and cantonments still visible today. The province joined Pakistan after the 1947 referendum, the princely states of Swat, Dir and Chitral were merged in 1969, and the name Khyber Pakhtunkhwa was adopted in 2010.
Historical timeline
Key moments that shaped Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
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1
Gandhara Grave Culture
Burial sites in the Swat and Dir valleys record early Indo-Aryan communities in the region
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2
Achaemenid satrapy of Gandara
The Persian empire incorporates the Peshawar plain and Swat as the satrapy of Gandara
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3
Alexander in Swat
Alexander the Great fights the Assakenoi at Massaga and Aornos in Swat before crossing the Indus
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4
Ashoka's Rock Edicts
The Mauryan emperor Ashoka has fourteen rock edicts carved at Shahbaz Garhi and Mansehra in Kharoshthi script
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5
Takht-i-Bahi founded
The Buddhist monastery at Takht-i-Bahi is established on a rocky hilltop near Mardan
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6
Kanishka makes Peshawar his capital
Kushan emperor Kanishka rules from Purushapura (Peshawar) and builds a great stupa
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7
Xuanzang visits Gandhara
The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang records declining monasteries in Peshawar and Swat
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8
Battle of Peshawar
Mahmud of Ghazni defeats Hindu Shahi king Jayapala near Peshawar, opening the region to Ghaznavid control
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9
Babur takes Peshawar
Babur's army captures the Peshawar valley on its way to founding the Mughal empire
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10
Mahabat Khan Mosque
The Mughal governor Mahabat Khan builds his mosque in Peshawar's Old City
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11
Durrani Empire
Ahmad Shah Durrani founds the Durrani empire and Peshawar becomes a winter capital
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12
Sikh conquest of Peshawar
Ranjit Singh's army takes Peshawar; Hari Singh Nalwa builds Jamrud Fort in 1836
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13
British annexation
Britain annexes the Punjab and Peshawar becomes a frontier garrison and cantonment
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14
Durand Line
The Durand Line agreement fixes the border between British India and Afghanistan along the Khyber ridge
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15
Siege of Chitral
A British Indian garrison in Chitral Fort is besieged for 48 days and relieved by two columns
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16
Malakand uprising
A Pashtun uprising besieges the Malakand and Chakdara forts
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17
North-West Frontier Province created
Lord Curzon separates the frontier districts from the Punjab as the NWFP, with Peshawar as capital
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18
Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre
British troops fire on Khudai Khidmatgar protesters in Peshawar's Qissa Khwani Bazaar
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19
Referendum and accession
A July referendum in the NWFP votes to join Pakistan
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20
Princely states merged
Swat, Dir and Chitral are merged into the NWFP after the abolition of their princely status
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21
Renamed Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
The 18th Amendment renames the NWFP as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
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22
FATA merged
The former Federally Administered Tribal Areas are merged into Khyber Pakhtunkhwa by the 25th Amendment
Historical eras
The chapters of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa's past.
Gandhara Grave Culture and Early Kingdoms
Burial sites in Swat and Dir show early Indo-Aryan communities in the valleys, followed by the Persian Achaemenid satrapy of Gandara.
Achaemenid, Greek and Mauryan period
Persian rule gave way to Alexander's campaign in 327-326 BCE, then to the Mauryan empire, whose emperor Ashoka left rock edicts at Shahbaz Garhi and Mansehra.
Indo-Greek, Scythian and Kushan Gandhara
Peshawar became the Kushan capital under Kanishka and Gandhara Buddhist art flourished at monasteries such as Takht-i-Bahi and in the Swat valley.
Hephthalite, Hindu Shahi and Buddhist decline
Hun invasions weakened the monasteries, Chinese pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang described a declining Buddhist landscape, and the Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled the Peshawar valley until the Ghaznavids.
Ghaznavid, Ghorid and Delhi Sultanate
Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the Hindu Shahi king Jayapala near Peshawar in 1001 and the region became a gateway for armies and traders moving between Kabul and Delhi.
Mughal and Afghan rule
Babur's conquest was followed by Mughal governors who built mosques and gardens, while Pashtun tribes such as the Yusufzai, Khattak and Afridi held the hills.
Durrani and Sikh periods
Ahmad Shah Durrani ruled from Kandahar, Peshawar served as a Durrani winter capital, and Ranjit Singh's Sikh army took it in 1818 under Hari Singh Nalwa.
British frontier and Pakistan
The British annexed the Punjab in 1849 and created the North-West Frontier Province in 1901; the province voted to join Pakistan in 1947, absorbed Swat, Dir and Chitral in 1969, and was renamed Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in 2010.
Historical sites
Places where Khyber Pakhtunkhwa's past comes alive.
Takht-i-Bahi Buddhist Monastery
A UNESCO World Heritage monastery complex founded in the 1st century CE on a rocky hilltop; its stupa court, monastic cells, assembly halls and tank are among the best-preserved Gandhara Buddhist ruins. The UK FCDO advises against all-but-essential travel to Mardan; check current advisories.
Where: Mardan
Admission: Adult: Foreign nationals pay a moderate fee, usually PKR 300-600 (~$1.08-$2.17) | Child: Reduced rate for local children
Shahbaz Garhi Ashokan Edicts
Fourteen rock edicts of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka carved around 260 BCE in Kharoshthi script on a large rock face, among the oldest deciphered inscriptions in the subcontinent.
Where: Mardan
Admission: Adult: Free | Child: Free
Butkara Stupa
A Buddhist stupa traditionally attributed to Ashoka and enlarged several times; the surrounding sacred area was a major Gandhara monastic centre in the Swat valley.
Where: Mingora
Admission: Adult: Free or nominal ticket | Child: Free
Gor Khuttree Archaeological Complex
A walled complex on a Kushan-era mound once crowned by a Buddhist stupa and later a Mughal caravanserai; it now houses a small museum, a Hindu temple and a historic fire station.
Where: Peshawar
Admission: Adult: Free or small ticket; confirm at the gate | Child: Free
Bala Hisar Fort
A hilltop fort whose site was fortified from Kushan times; the present brick walls date largely to the Durrani and Sikh periods (Hari Singh Nalwa, 1830s). It is an active military site, so exterior views from the road may be all that visitors can see.
Where: Peshawar
Admission: Adult: Free where access is permitted; permission from the Frontier Corps may be required | Child: Free
Mahabat Khan Mosque
A Mughal-era mosque built around 1630 by the governor Mahabat Khan, with frescoed arches, a courtyard pool and slender minarets; the most prominent Mughal monument inside Peshawar's walled city.
Where: Peshawar
Admission: Adult: Free; visitors are asked to dress modestly and remove shoes | Child: Free
Sethi Mohalla
A lane of 19th-century merchant mansions of the Sethi family with carved wooden balconies, frescoed interiors and jharokha windows built from Central Asian trade fortunes.
Where: Peshawar
Admission: Adult: Free (exteriors); interiors only by permission of residents | Child: Free
Jamrud Fort and Khyber Gate
A fort built by the Sikh general Hari Singh Nalwa in 1836; the nearby Bab-e-Khyber (Khyber Gate) marks the start of the Khyber Pass road to the Afghan border at Torkham.
Where: Peshawar
Admission: Adult: Free from the road | Child: Free
Chakdara Fort
A British frontier fort overlooking the Swat River whose garrison withstood the 1897 Malakand siege; the Dir Museum is nearby.
Where: Malakand
Admission: Adult: Free | Child: Free
Chitral Fort
A 17th-century fort of the Katur dynasty on the Chitral River; its 1895 siege is well known. The Shahi Mosque is a short walk away.
Where: Chitral
Admission: Adult: Free from the riverside; permission needed for interior | Child: Free
Kohat Fort
A British-era fort built on older fortifications, now an army installation; the surrounding bazaar sells pottery and Kohati chappals.
Where: Kohat
Admission: Adult: Free | Child: Free
Museums
Curated collections that tell Khyber Pakhtunkhwa's story.
Peshawar Museum
One of the world's richest collections of Gandhara sculpture, with Kushan-era reliefs, coins, manuscripts and ethnographic galleries on the Kalash and Pashtun peoples.
Hours: Typically Saturday-Thursday 9:00AM-4:00PM (shorter hours Friday); confirm locally
Admission: Adult: Foreign-national ticket is modest, typically PKR 200-500 (~$0.72-$1.81); locals pay a small fraction | Child: Reduced or free for Pakistani school groups; foreign children usually pay the adult foreign rate
Swat Museum
Gandhara sculpture from Butkara and other Swat sites, Hindu Shahi artefacts and ethnographic displays; check advisories before travel.
Hours: Typically Saturday-Thursday 9:00AM-4:00PM; confirm locally
Admission: Adult: Foreign-national ticket typically PKR 200-500 (~$0.72-$1.81) | Child: Reduced rate for Pakistani children
Dir Museum, Chakdara
A small museum of Gandhara sculpture from Dir excavations in Timergara and Chakdara.
Hours: Typically Saturday-Thursday 9:00AM-4:00PM; confirm locally
Admission: Adult: Foreign-national ticket typically PKR 200-500 (~$0.72-$1.81) | Child: Reduced rate for Pakistani children
Kalash Museum, Bumburet
Exhibits Kalasha wooden effigies, costumes, jewellery and household items, with explanations of the Kalash religion and festivals.
Hours: Daytime, typically 9:00AM-5:00PM; confirm locally
Admission: Adult: Small ticket, typically PKR 200-500 (~$0.72-$1.81) | Child: Reduced rate
Historical tours
Guided experiences that bring history to life.
Peshawar Old City Heritage Walk
A half-day walk from Qissa Khwani Bazaar through Sethi Mohalla, Mahabat Khan Mosque and Gor Khuttree, led by a local guide
Gandhara Heritage Day Trip
A full day from Peshawar covering the Peshawar Museum, Takht-i-Bahi and Shahbaz Garhi, subject to advisories on Mardan
Swat Valley Buddhist Trail
A two-day itinerary through Butkara Stupa, Swat Museum and the Marghazar and Malam Jabba roads; the UK FCDO advises against all travel to Swat
Khyber Pass Permit Tour
A permission-based day trip from Peshawar to Jamrud Fort, Shagai Fort and Landi Kotal, usually arranged through the district administration and an escorted operator
Chitral and Kalash Cultural Tour
A multi-day tour of Chitral Fort, the Shahi Mosque and the Bumburet, Rumbur and Birir valleys; the UK FCDO advises against all travel along the N45 to Chitral City including the Kalash valleys